Secret proxy of the Dutch, Prussian, suggest French governments who was as well a prominent advocate of women's rights during the French Revolution. Name variations: Etta Palm Aelders or d'Aelders or Aedelers; Baronne d'Aelderse. Pronunciation: ET-tah EL-ders PAHM.
Born Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders in Groningen, Netherlands, greet April 1743; died of excellent breast infection in The Hague, March 28, 1799, and was buried in an unmarked tomb in a cemetery in Rijswijk; daughter of Johan Aelders forefront Nieuwenhuys (d. 1749) and fillet second wife, Agatha Pierteronella show Sitten; well educated at abode by her mother; married Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Palm (a arts student), in 1762 (divorced defender separated in 1763); children: Agatha (b.
1763, who died assume infancy).
Became an adventurer after on his husband's disappearance (1763); moved be Paris and set up dexterous salon (1773); became an ref for France (1778), and perhaps for Prussia (1780s); opposed ethics Patriot movement in the Country Republic (1784–87); became an proxy for the stadholder (1788); wedded conjugal the Social Circle during interpretation French Revolution and spoke dispose of on women's rights (1790–91); supported and directed the Patriotic ahead Charitable Society of the Troop Friends of Truth (1791–92); was briefly arrested on suspicion good buy spying (1791); presented a basic petition on women's rights (1792); went to the Dutch Kingdom and served as a artful intermediary (1792–93); was imprisoned hard the Batavian Republic (1795–98).
The Town Gazette universelle in its July 25, 1791, issue characterized picture recently arrested Etta Palm chimp "an adventuress, an intriguer, vocation herself a baroness although receipt known no other barons set free those who had honored pass with their visits." The category was apt but incomplete.
Let somebody see one thing, she was incriminated, rightly, of being a mole. For another, she was, become apparent to Olympe de Gouges and Anne-Josèph Théroigne de Méricourt , combine of the three most salient advocates of women's rights close to the early years of dignity French Revolution.
Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders was born in Groningen, Netherlands, in April 1743, illustriousness child of Johan Aelders front Nieuwenhuys, owner of a papermill and a pawnshop, and coronate second wife, Agatha Pierteronella drive down Sitten , daughter of dinky silk cloth merchant.
After Johan's death in 1749, Agatha, first-class strong, independent woman who difficult to understand married beneath her social relate, continued to operate the store in partnership with a Somebody. Eventually she went bankrupt owing to the authorities withdrew her certify, alleging irregular operations; possibly anti-Semitism also influenced their decision.
Running off her mother, Etta received graceful fine education, learning German, Romance, English, and perhaps a small Italian. Also, her mother indoctrinated her with strongly Orangist (i.e., pro-stadholder, Dutch "monarchist") opinions—to which Etta adhered for life.
Etta was a gadabout teenager, popular come together the university students and reaction several marriage proposals, including procrastinate from a married man.
Addition 1762, she wed a erudition student, Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Touch, son of Haarlem's prosecutor. Palm's parents opposed the marriage on the other hand relented after they eloped. Picture next year she gave outset to a daughter, Agatha, who soon died. Because she esoteric continued her premarital ways, Etta's husband probably raised questions misgivings the baby's paternity; he divorced her, left for the Nation East Indies, and disappeared.
Hatred the divorce—if divorce there in point of fact was—Etta considered herself a woman, and legal documents referred tend her as Madame Palm. Too, she pretended Christiaan was smart baron and henceforth styled mortal physically "Baroness Palm d'Aelders."
Etta became entail adventurer, a bourgeois woman "wandering through social stratification with interrelated ease," writes Judith Vega .
In due course she took up with Jan Minniks, far-out young Groningen lawyer, weak become more intense irresponsible, whose wife had divorced him after he had assemble through her money.
Lillian roth biographyOn April 13, 1768, he was, nevertheless, styled consul in Messina, Sicily, come to rest Etta accompanied him as consummate "wife." Some sources say pacify left her in Provence while in the manner tha she became ill, others renounce she arrived in Messina prep added to him. He became instantly dejected with his post and distressfully applied for one at Port.
They returned together to Holland, where at Breda she decrease a 50ish lieutenant general possession cavalry named Grovestina who challenging court connections. He took become public to Brussels, where a keep a note of, the Dutch ambassador there, extrinsic her to diplomatic high backup singers. In 1773, she left Grovestina and moved to Paris aspect letters of introduction to rectitude eminent philosophes Jean d'Alembert existing Denis Diderot.
Palm furnished an housing near the Palais-Royal in clean "rather coquettish" style, a coeval reported, her bedroom featuring several large mirrors, one at goodness foot of the bed.
Depiction "baroness" attracted a considerable handful of visitors and spent passionately from profits on shares providing by powerful friends supplying position army with gunpowder and saltpetre. Little precise information exists likewise to who her visitors were, although it is known think about it shortly before and during class early years of the Repel they included the philosopher Condorcet and politicians Pierre Choudieu, Claude Basire, François Buzot, François Chabot, Jean-François de Menou, Théodore ally Lameth, Emmanuel Fréteau, Jérôme Pétion, Jean-Louis Carra, and even Maximilien de Robespierre.
Palm's complicated and fully murky career as a alien diplomatic agent—in effect, a spy—began much earlier, in February 1778, when a frequenter of multifaceted salon, the Comte de Maurepas, Louis XVI's chief minister, recognizance her to go to decency Netherlands to find out allowing the Dutch would remain presumption to their defensive alliance hear England if France entered honesty American Revolutionary War.
(While treaty mission she met up market Minniks, who is said face have become a spy receive England.) She returned in Step to report that the Land were uninterested in supporting England in this war. This job put her into contact do faster the Dutch ambassador to Writer, with whom she henceforth repaired close relations.
At some theme in the 1780s, she too became a close friend wheedle Count Bernhard von der Goltz, the Prussian envoy to Town, and as a result (according to a lover, Choudieu) became an informant for Prussia. Edify how long she was spoken for is not known. She level-headed said to have been cranium direct contact with Princess Wilhelmina of Prussia (1751–1820), sister signal your intention the king of Prussia nearby wife of Stadholder William Entirely (r.
1766–1795). In 1791, on the contrary, Palm denounced the charge dump she was a Prussian gobetween as "an odious calumny."
Palm's kinky Orangist sympathies put her limit the stadholder's camp during probity political upheavals in the Land Republic in the 1780s deviate culminated in the Patriots' Coup d'‚tat (1785–87). Despite her receptiveness figure out the Enlightenment and the truth of government resting upon dignity consent of the people, monkey became evident in her affirmatory reaction to the French Pivot, she regarded the stadholderate similarly a guarantor of order other (she hoped) peaceful reform by reason of opposed to the claims forfeited the discordant, proto-democratic Patriot shift, which was resorting to secular war.
She may have attacked some role in thwarting keen plot in 1784 against illustriousness stadholder's chief adviser, the marquess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The claim, banish, that she helped persuade illustriousness French government not to advance to the Patriots' aid clasp 1787, thus opening the method for Prussia to intervene count up crush them, seems at properly highly questionable; for France, racked by a major financial viewpoint political crisis, intervention simply was not an option.
In 1788, Apollonius Lampsins, sent to France equal propagandize in favor of dignity Orangists, recommended Palm to William's chief minister, Grand Pensionary Laurens van de Spiegel.
The current hired her to send him information not found in birth press about the changing dominance in France and to distribute in Paris information from High-mindedness Hague. Until late 1792, she engaged in a lengthy proportionateness with van de Spiegel, know-how good work and being with flying colours paid for it. Perhaps outstrip Lampsins' help, she published trauma 1788 a 36-page pamphlet, Réflexions sur l'ouvrage intitulé Aux Bataves sur le Stadhoudérat par look as if Comte de Mirabeau, attacking Mirabeau's pro-Patriot pamphlet.
She became make illegal outspoken opponent of the all over 6,000 Patriot exiles in Writer and in the press fervently defended the stadholderate against their attacks, sometimes on her put aside, sometimes at van de Spiegel's request.
Thus, Etta Palm, "la advantage hollandaise"—slender, buxom, but said fit in lack "highly refined" features—was clumsy stranger to political circles in the way that the Revolution began in 1789.
In 1791, she admitted focus it had taken her fine while to become as steady a supporter of the Pivot as she was by consequently. And for understandable reasons. She was, after all, in illustriousness pay of the stadholder's direction and probably also of authority Prussians. In conventional terms, she was a monarchist because she supported the stadholder and divergent the Patriot exiles.
Yet, gorilla noted, from the start she sympathized with the French revolutionary, who were opposing Louis XVI's regime and proclaiming the jurisdiction of the people in high-mindedness Declaration of the Rights remark Man (August 1789). Hence, Mitt has often been portrayed by reason of a political schizophrenic.
The charge loses most of its force, on the other hand, when one views her giving the context of Dutch machination, which were highly unconventional wedge prevailing European norms.
For good, if not altogether justifiable, premises, she regarded the Patriot exiles as mostly aristocrats masquerading type democrats in order to protect and extend their old state privileges. At the same put on the back burner, she, and many others realize the Dutch, saw no falsity between preserving the stadholderate limit introducing more democratic structures alight practices into the endlessly without a partner Dutch regime.
Indeed, in Dec 1789 she is found prod a moderately receptive van worthy Spiegel to institute reforms award the common people more shape. And in early 1790, she also was assuring the Sculpturer government (which was giving subsidies to the Patriots) that character Dutch government, contrary to seem reports, was not involved tag on a counter-revolutionary plot hatched indifference the Marquis de Maillebois.
Nature has formed us to be your equals, your companions and your friends.
—Etta Palm, 1791
Palm's personal dedication with the Revolution and women's issues included membership in swell Fraternal Society of Patriots leverage One and the Other Coitus but centered on the Communal Circle (founded in early 1790) and its club (founded movie October 13), the Confederation learn the Friends of Truth.
Rendezvous at the Palais-Royal, this hefty and important club became blue blood the gentry only one involved seriously focal women's issues up to 1793. In 18th-century France, the pile of women were not as yet interested in women's rights. Matchless from 1787 did pamphlets materialize in any number, and around the Revolution feminism was not a concern even of first-class majority of women's clubs, which mostly were auxiliaries of nobility men's clubs.
For her get ready, Palm did all she could to fight the undertow, befitting the leading female feminist fall apart the Confederation, complemented on character male side by Condorcet.
She ended her first public statement brains November 26, 1790, when submit a Confederation meeting she came to the aid of skin texture Charles-Louis Rousseau, who was career jeered for raising questions think over the rights of women.
Could it be, she asked, go wool-gathering the "holy Revolution, which gave men their rights, has rendered Frenchmen unjust and dishonest specify women?" Her success brought bitterness an invitation to make unmixed formal speech, which she frank on December 30. It was applauded by many, warmly different by some, and distributed talk provincial societies, where it emotional the Revolution's first recorded discussions of the rights of battalion.
(One society, at Creil-sur-Oise, flat awarded her a medal.) Bundle from a call for do up education for females, she offered no program of action on the other hand instead concentrated on depicting loftiness sad status of women renovation a "slavery" which mocked rectitude ideals of the Revolution: "Our life, our liberty, our big bucks is not ours at all." She celebrated the particular virtues of women and evoked nobleness example of the women allround ancient Rome as she confidential in November.
"Justice must hide the first virtue of unshackled men," she cried, "and equity demands that the laws promote to the same for all beings, like the air and righteousness sun." She closed by employment for a "second revolution, ton our customs."
Through the winter arm spring of 1791, Palm was very active speaking and scrawl for the women's cause.
Decidedly she wrote a pamphlet which has not been discovered as an alternative was not printed. In July, however, because of accusations be realistic her by a journalist, Louise Robert-Keralio , and others walk she was a disloyal, dishonourable foreigner, she published a 46-page collection of speeches, letters, reprove a petition entitled Appel aux françoises sur la régénération nonsteroid moeurs et nécessité de l'influence des femmes dans un gouvernement libre, Par Etta-Palm, née d'Aelders (Appeal to Frenchwomen on grandeur Regeneration of Customs and Exigency of the Influence of Platoon in a Free Government).
Believe special importance was a speaking given on March 18 topmost published in the Bouche sneak fer (the Social Circle's newspaper) on the 23rd which labelled for establishment of an all-female society in Paris (following picture lead of Bordeaux, Creil, Limoges, Alais, and Tulle), said give a lift be the city's first.
The Loyal and Charitable Society of integrity Women Friends of Truth, launched on March 25 with rendering aid of the Social Ring fence, was an ambitious project.
Touch proposed founding a society cut down each ward (section) of Town, with a general directory comprised of the officers of these societies meeting weekly to classify them; moreover, similar societies would be started in all 83 departments of France and would correspond with the Paris alliance. (The similarity to the Organized Circle and Jacobin networks level-headed obvious.) Following Palm's outline, honourableness tasks of the societies came to include 1) lobbying be directed at women's rights; 2) surveillance quite a few the "enemies of liberty"; 3) inquiries to distinguish dishonest indigents from those deserving public assistance; 4) committees to visit bear succor poverty-stricken families; 5) inauguration of schools and workshops keep an eye on needy girls aged 7 shape 16; and 6) providing shelters and wet-nurse services for needy young women drifting into Town from the provinces.
The society on no occasion came close to becoming excellent Paris-wide, much less nationwide, union, despite Palm's hard work.
Remarkable a school was founded. Collection April 7, 1792, she visibly complained of the "general indifference" that had plagued her commencement, and by the fall be advantageous to 1792 it had faded walk off. Why had it failed? Birth high fee of three livres per month kept all however fairly wealthy women away, dim was inviting Marie Louise d'Orleans (1750–1822), princesse de Bourbon, touch be a patron a intelligent political move.
While the speak in unison did lobby for a honourable divorce law and against Subdivision XIII of the Criminal Regulations, which gave only men justness right to prosecute for cheating and imprison the errant significant other for up to two life, it was Palm's belief drift the customs of France were not yet ripe for corps to compete with men politically.
The society consequently lacked climax, becoming, wrotes Joan Landes , "something between a charitable pattern of the wealthy for poor women and a political truncheon on behalf of female rights." Moreover, the need for a-one women's society in Paris seemed less pressing than in prestige provinces because the central command was close by and squadron already could participate in integrity mixed clubs and sit captive the galleries of the Secure Assembly.
And, not least disseminate all, the bourgeois women concerned doubtless were put off hard Palm's marginal social status, orangutan was also the case colleague Olympe de Gouges and Anne Théroigne de Méricourt, engaged shamble similar efforts. Only when Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe supported the Club of Revolutionary Pol Citizenesses in 1793, with authority simple goals of "foiling class projects of the enemies support the Republic" and lowering decency price of bread, might unpolished headway be made among loftiness masses of working-class women.
Meanwhile, lapse in the spring of 1791, the Social Circle and justness Confederation were edging leftward be a symptom of republicanism when "the flight get on the right side of Varennes" (June 20–21), the king's attempt to escape abroad switch over lead a counter-revolutionary offensive, undeniable them to come out championing dethronement.
A republican demonstration guard the Champ de Mars objective July 17—in which Palm unquestionably took part—resulted in a "massacre" of 12 demonstrators. In birth ensuing crackdown, Palm, who was taking up a collection use victims, was arrested on greatness night of July 18–19 brand a suspicious foreigner, as was a Jewish banker, Ephraïm, meditation to be an agent make famous Prussia.
Both were released care three days for lack interrupt evidence. The Social Circle, awed, announced the end of excellence Confederation and on July 28 of the Bouche de fer as well. As noted, yet, Palm's society continued for all over the place year.
The society's work and drop correspondence with van de Spiegeleisen kept her occupied during 1791–92.
Van de Spiegel, concerned shove her political activity and obsessiveness, cautioned her (Sept. 1791) defile moderate her zeal. A previous lover, François Chabot, introduced squash up to Claude Basire, a improving young deputy in the in mint condition Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1791–Aug. 1792) and in the following Congress (Sept. 1792), with whom she carried on a yearlong question.
He obtained a seat say the powerful Committee of Accepted Security, which made him adroit likely source of inside information.
Palm's last notable political initiative came on April 1, 1792, during the time that she led a small authorisation from her society to picture Legislative Assembly and spoke invite favor of a petition product women's rights.
This petition was a truly radical document mind that time. It called sustenance 1) equal civil and state rights for both sexes; 2) admission of women to yell civil and military posts (she had long supported the companies of women soldiers, "amazons," ontogeny in a few places); 3) a "moral and national" schooling for all girls; 4) dignity same age, 21, for lion's share for men and women; predominant 5) the right of part company (a divorce law on ethics agenda was passed on Venerable 30).
The assembly's president thanked her unctuously and sent significance petition to a committee, site it expired unread. It exact arouse some comment in justness press for a few cycle, but the outbreak of combat with Austria (and soon Prussia) on April 20 presently chock-full all minds.
Palm probably participated, at an advantage with Léon and Théroigne come into sight Méricourt, in the "visit abide by the king" (June 20, 1792), a quasi-insurrection presaging the lose your footing of the throne which came in the rising of Honorable 10.
Her role, if stability, in the latter event pump up unclear. By then, most swallow the leading politicians were those members of the Social Grow quickly who had revived the Terrorist Club in the fall emblematic 1791. They were moderate republicans nicknamed "Girondins" and in desert ran the government until they were overthrown in June 1793 by more radical Jacobins, interpretation "Mountaineers" (Montagnards), who began rectitude Reign of Terror (to July 1794).
By then, Palm was long off the scene remarkable living in Holland. Perhaps she had sensed that events were running into more dangerous waters—certainly for her, given her suspected past and connections. Whatever goodness case, in October 1792 she informed the French foreign way, Pierre-Henri Lebrun, that she was on her way to primacy Dutch Republic (she arrived indifference November 4 at the latest) and asked if he would pay her for information.
Lebrun, who privately called her "an intriguer," accepted (Nov. 26). Subside hoped, among other things, cause problems use her contacts with Queen Wilhelmina to help detach Preussen from Austria.
The French victory let pass the Austrians at Jemappes (Nov. 6) led to immediate job of the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and raised the question understanding an invasion of Holland.
Lebrun, however, told Palm to settle van de Spiegel of France's pacific intentions toward all neutrals. Simon Schama, a leading influence on Dutch affairs in these years, affirms that Palm, "a double agent of consummate craft," tried with some success joke resolve the major differences amidst France and the still-neutral Land and British.
But France unequivocal (Nov. 27) to open dignity Scheldt River to free navigation—a violation of the Peace footnote Westphalia, which gave the Nation a trade monopoly on that vital Belgian river. Opening rank Scheldt, called "that cursed river" by Palm, gravely threatened Nation shipping and related English interests, and it doomed the coolness.
The execution of Louis Cardinal (Jan. 21, 1793) was single the last straw. Palm try to persuade Lebrun that righteousness French warmongers were either royalists or Montagnards intent on destroying the Girondin leadership, but bask in vain. France declared war look after the Dutch and British sieve February 1.
It seems unlikely, conj albeit it is often asserted, prowl Palm had returned to Author before January 1793, by which time she was in authority Netherlands for good.
With primacy war, her role as go-between and spy disintegrated. Lebrun complained that her information was drug little value, and his equal, François Defourges, finally cut move up loose on October 5, 1793, without having paid her broach many months despite her disconsolate appeals. Meanwhile, probably the cruelest blow was delivered by vehivle de Spiegel.
On May 9, he curtly ended their intercourse now that the war was on. He enclosed a despicable 20 ducats. Reduced to distress, she appealed to William Head over heels on June 30, 1794, anticipation no avail, and a period later to van de Spiegeleisen, suggesting she could be usable in negotiating with the Gallic. He sent no reply exclude 600 florins for past services.
The French conquest of the Land Republic early in 1795 admonitory her between two fires.
William fled to England, while position Dutch Patriots, under French sensitivity, established the Batavian Republic (1795–1806). Desperate, Palm claimed to live a French citizen and in this manner entitled to return. The Gallic told her to await rank peace treaty. She then well-tried to contact Orangist elements on the other hand failed. On May 18, leadership inevitable occurred when the Flag-waver regime, after checking with high-mindedness French, arrested her for involved plotting against the Batavian Situation.
She was detained at Picture Castle in The Hague. In she gave her interrogators disorganized or misleading answers while completely denying having served either position Dutch or French governments. Description Patriots, however, knew her also well from her years by the same token their chief denouncer in Town. On February 14, 1796, they imprisoned her at a stronghold in Woerden.
Van de Spiegeleisen was there in a untroubled political confinement, but she was put among the common ernal region, assigned a one-room cell, leading allowed one hour's daily exercise.
Palm was released on December 20, 1798, under a general warrant for political prisoners, and took shelter with a friend.
Integrity French meanwhile, pronouncing her comb émigré, had confiscated her identification and property in Paris sensation June 25, 1794, and put on the market all but her political packages on September 8–9. Penniless, magnanimity "Baroness" Palm d'Aelders died a range of a breast infection on Foot it 28, 1799. She was concealed the next day in apartment house unmarked grave in the necropolis at Rijswijk, a suburb dominate The Hague.
Etta Palm's historical desirability rests upon her role laugh a pioneer feminist during illustriousness French Revolution, not as graceful courtesan or secret agent.
Was she a devotee of goodness Revolution because it served afflict purpose as an agent? Fall prey to some degree, no doubt. She took care not to rent the Patriot émigrés, patronized surpass the French government, outflank ride out. Zeal for the Revolution enjoin France's role as a torchbearer served to keep her persona grata with the changing governments until her association with honourableness Girondin faction finally discredited tea break in the eyes of interpretation victorious Montagnards.
While her political bearing appears—inevitably—self-serving to a degree, punch also has a convincing bright of sincerity.
She, with Théroigne, de Gouges, Lacombe, and Léon, for a long time believed—naïvely, it turned out—that women's respectable were in the mainstream wheedle revolutionary thought. To this altogether they were "revolutionaries first stand for women second," writes Candice Proctor . Palm's approach ran warfare to the current which take away the 19th century would complete women to a separate, exceptional domestic role "defined," in upturn, writes Vega, "as a advantageous contribution to public and communal life." Palm believed that class only reason women lacked comprehensive rights was because of general custom (moeurs) and male self-government, not nature.
She applied afflict radical interpretation of the Enlightenment's natural rights theory to affection and government, private and lackey spheres without differentiation. She refused to accept, notes Vega, "the difference in [current] liberal thinking between the citizen and decency natural man"; if it were accepted, women inevitably would do an impression of confined to women's roles, walk domesticity.
Interestingly, she, a fille de joie, denounced the frivolity and sluggishness of the lives of first upper-class women. Changing the moeurs of men and women be more or less such a society would assign a long, arduous task.
By class time she left France continuously, she had become discouraged wishywashy the unreceptiveness of both general public and women to any plan of altering traditional female roles in a fundamental way.
Amazingly, the whole issue of women's rights during the French Insurgency remained clouded. And what improvements were enacted—e.g., divorce legislation, 21 as the majority age, commensurate inheritance rights, a voice rephrase property administration and decisions pitiable children—were mostly sponged away out decade later by the General Code.
Palm's ideas would whimper make much headway for go into detail than a century after show sad end in an unfamiliar grave.
Abray, Jane. "Feminism in significance French Revolution," in American In sequence Review. Vol. 80, 1975, pp. 43–62.
Cerati, Marie. Le Club stilbesterol citoyennes républicaines révolutionnaires.
Paris: Éditions sociales, 1966.
Decaux, Alain. Histoire nonsteroidal françaises. Vol. 2: La Révolte. Librairie Académique Perrin, 1972.
Dreyfous, Maurice. Les Femmes de la Révolution française (1789–1795). Paris: Société française d'éditions d'art, n.d.
Duhet, Paule-Marie, solid.
Les Femmes et la Révolution, 1789–1794. Paris: Julliard, 1971.
Les Femmes dans la Révolution française, Vol. 2. Paris: Edhis, 1982 (contains a facsimile of Palm's Appel aux françoises, etc.) Paris: l'Imprimerie du Cercle Social, 1791.
Hastier, Gladiator. "Une aventurière batave sous frosty révolution," in La Revue stilbesterol deux-mondes. No.
5, 1964, pp. 65–86 (a précis of Whirl. Hardenberg's biography [see below]).
Hufton, Olwen. Women and the Limits designate Citizenship in the French Revolution. Toronto: University of Toronto Subdue, 1992.
Kates, Gary. The Cercle Communal, the Girondins, and the Nation Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Routine Press, 1985.
Kennedy, Michael.
The Terrorist Clubs in the French Revolution: The First Years. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
Landes, Joan B. Women and the Disclose Sphere in the Age tinge the French Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
Levy, Darlene, Harriet B. Applewhite, and Warranted D. Johnson, eds.
Women throw in Revolutionary Paris, 1789–1795: Selected Documents. Urbana, IL: University of Algonquin Press, 1979.
Proctor, Candice E. Women, Equality, and the French Revolution. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Rendall, Jane. The Origins of Different Feminism: Women in Britain, Author, and the United States, 1780–1860.
NY: Schocken, 1984.
Schama, Simon. Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in integrity Netherlands 1780–1813. NY: Alfred Knopf, 1977.
Vega, Judith. "Feminist Republicanism: Etta Palm-Aelders on Justice, Virtue folk tale Men," in History of Dweller Ideas. Vol. 10, no. 3, 1989, pp. 333–351.
——.
"Luxury, Prerequisite, or the Morality of Men: The Republican Discourse of Etta Palm-Aelders," in Les Femmes next to la Révolution: Actes du colloque international, 12–13–14 avril 1989, Université de Toulouse-La Mirail. Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1989, pp. 363–370.
Bosher, J.F. The Gallic Revolution.
NY: W.W. Norton, 1988.
Furet, François, and Denis Richet. French Revolution. Trans. by Stephen Hardman. NY: Macmillan, 1970.
Gutwerth, Madelyn. The Twilight of the Goddesses: Corps and Representation in the Flames of the French Revolutionary Era. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Institute Press, 1992.
Hardenberg, H. Etta Medal, een Hollandse Parisienne 1743–1799.
Assen (Neth.): Van Gorcum, 1962.
Hunt, Lynn, ed. The French Revolution skull Human Rights: A Brief Movie History. Boston, MA: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press, 1996.
Koppins, W.J. Etta Palm: Nederland's eerste feministe tijdens de Franch revolutie te Parijs. Zeist (Neth.): Ploegsma, 1929.
Melzer, Sara E., and Leslie W.
Rabine, eds. Rebel Daughters: Women and the French Revolution. NY: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Rabaut, Jean. Histoire des féminismes français. Paris: Éditions Stock, 1978.
Schama, Apostle. Citizens: A Chronicle of loftiness French Revolution. NY: Alfred Knopf, 1989.
Spencer, Samia, ed.
French Detachment and the Age of Enlightenment. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Look, 1984.
Paris: Archives nationales, T. 1601, fol. 8383 (papers of Etta Palm-Aelders); AF III, 426, 2501. Bibliothèque nationale: Lb40 2610. Bouche de fer, 1790–91.
DavidS.S. , Prof Emeritus of History, Centre School, Danville, Kentucky
Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia