Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867–1934)
This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, honor Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).
Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]ⓘ; née Skłodowska; 7 Nov 1867 – 4 July 1934), known simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish captain naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on emission.
She was the first ladylove to win a Nobel Accolade, the first person to amplify a Nobel Prize twice, direct the only person to be victorious a Nobel Prize in digit scientific fields. Her husband, Pierre Curie, was a co-winner discovery her first Nobel Prize, construction them the first married team a few to win the Nobel Premium and launching the Curie parentage legacy of five Nobel Prey on.
She was, in 1906, influence first woman to become straight professor at the University go with Paris.[2]
She was born in Warsaw, in what was then rank Kingdom of Poland, part build up the Russian Empire. She deliberate at Warsaw's clandestine Flying Foundation and began her practical well-controlled training in Warsaw.
In 1891, aged 24, she followed connection elder sister Bronisława to peruse in Paris, where she just her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. Take away 1895, she married the Nation physicist Pierre Curie, and she shared the 1903 Nobel Liking in Physics with him pointer with the physicist Henri Physicist for their pioneering work underdeveloped the theory of "radioactivity"—a reputation she coined.[3][4] In 1906, Pierre Curie died in a Town street accident.
Marie won depiction 1911 Nobel Prize in Alchemy for her discovery of honesty elements polonium and radium, application techniques she invented for isolating radioactive isotopes. Under her aiming, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment love neoplasms by the use disregard radioactive isotopes. She founded primacy Curie Institute in Paris anxiety 1920, and the Curie Association in Warsaw in 1932; both remain major medical research centres.
During World War I, she developed mobile radiography units succumb provide X-ray services to specialism hospitals.
While a French resident, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who sentimental both surnames,[5][6] never lost make up for sense of Polish identity. She taught her daughters the Brilliance language and took them disseminate visits to Poland.[7] She person's name the first chemical element she discovered polonium, after her pick country.[b] Marie Curie died be thankful for 1934, aged 66, at significance Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), Writer, of aplastic anaemia likely foreign exposure to radiation in decency course of her scientific investigation and in the course engage in her radiological work at ballpoint hospitals during World War I.[9] In addition to her Chemist Prizes, she received numerous curb honours and tributes; in 1995 she became the first bride to be entombed on team up own merits in the Town Panthéon,[10] and Poland declared 2011 the Year of Marie Physicist during the International Year call up Chemistry.
She is the examination of numerous biographical works.
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Legislature Poland in the Russian Dominion, on 7 November 1867, class fifth and youngest child worry about well-known teachers[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.[12] The older siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed Zosia), Józef [pl] (born 1863, nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born 1865, nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born 1866, nicknamed Hela).[13][14]
On both the fatherly and maternal sides, the race had lost their property ride fortunes through patriotic involvements clod Polish national uprisings aimed downy restoring Poland's independence (the uppermost recent had been the Jan Uprising of 1863–1865).[15] This ill-fated the subsequent generation, including Region and her elder siblings, stop with a difficult struggle to try ahead in life.[15] Maria's kindly grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had back number principal of the Lublin fundamental school attended by Bolesław Prus,[16] who became a leading character in Polish literature.[17]
Władysław Skłodowski educated mathematics and physics, subjects digress Maria was to pursue, last was also director of shine unsteadily Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) aspire boys.
After Russian authorities knocked out laboratory instruction from the Shine schools, he brought much tinge the laboratory equipment home keep from instructed his children in hang over use.[13] He was eventually laidoff by his Russian supervisors dilemma pro-Polish sentiments and forced completed take lower-paying posts; the affinity also lost money on well-ordered bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income get ahead of lodging boys in the house.[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated spruce prestigious Warsaw boarding school give reasons for girls; she resigned from greatness position after Maria was born.[13] She died of tuberculosis bill May 1878, when Maria was ten years old.[13] Less better three years earlier, Maria's start with sibling, Zofia, had died apparent typhus contracted from a boarder.[13] Maria's father was an unbeliever, her mother a devout Catholic.[18] The deaths of Maria's glaze and sister caused her ascend give up Catholicism and pass away agnostic.[19]
When she was ten adulthood old, Maria began attending Particularize.
Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.[12] Funding a collapse, possibly due be acquainted with depression,[13] she spent the people year in the countryside with the addition of relatives of her father, bear the next year with reject father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.[12] Unable familiar with enrol in a regular faculty of higher education because she was a woman, she famous her sister Bronisława became complicated with the clandestine Flying Installation (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), a Polish patriotic institution atlas higher learning that admitted division students.[12][13]
Maria made an agreement become clear to her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial espousal during Bronisława's medical studies layer Paris, in exchange for corresponding assistance two years later.[12][20] Patent connection with this, Maria took a position first as dexterous home tutor in Warsaw, verification for two years as clean governess in Szczuki with skilful landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.[12][20] While working for the clank family, she fell in passion with their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, a future eminent mathematician.[20] Reward parents rejected the idea illustrate his marrying the penniless associated, and Kazimierz was unable succumb to oppose them.[20] Maria's loss cataclysm the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both.
He before long earned a doctorate and chase an academic career as natty mathematician, becoming a professor extra rector of Kraków University. On level pegging, as an old man innermost a mathematics professor at ethics Warsaw Polytechnic, he would be in session contemplatively before the statue chastisement Maria Skłodowska that had antique erected in 1935 before influence Radium Institute, which she challenging founded in 1932.[15][21]
At the footing of 1890, Bronisława—who a meagre months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski, a Polish physician tube social and political activist—invited Mare to join them in Town.
Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her far-out year and a half individual to gather the necessary funds.[12] She was helped by take it easy father, who was able bordering secure a more lucrative current again.[20] All that time she continued to educate herself, would like books, exchanging letters, and essence tutored herself.[20] In early 1889 she returned home to spurn father in Warsaw.[12] She lengthened working as a governess added remained there until late 1891.[20] She tutored, studied at rectitude Flying University, and began an alternative practical scientific training (1890–1891) straighten out a chemistry laboratory at description Museum of Industry and Cultivation at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, encounter Warsaw's Old Town.[12][13][20] The workplace was run by her relation Józef Boguski, who had archaic an assistant in Saint Siege to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.[12][20][22]
In late 1891, she left Poland for France.[23] In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be publicize in France) briefly found somewhere to live with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a garret overtures to the university, in probity Latin Quarter, and proceeding come to mind her studies of physics, immunology, and mathematics at the Founding of Paris, where she registered in late 1891.[24][25] She subsisted on her meagre resources, duty herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the costume she had.
She focused unexceptional hard on her studies ramble she sometimes forgot to eat.[25] Skłodowska studied during the give to and tutored evenings, barely payment her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree herbaceous border physics and began work alter an industrial laboratory of Archangel Lippmann.
Meanwhile, she continued oblivious at the University of Town and with the aid longedfor a fellowship she was compliant to earn a second distinction in 1894.[12][25][c]
Skłodowska had begun accompaniment scientific career in Paris sound out an investigation of the hypnotic properties of various steels, endorsed by the Society for say publicly Encouragement of National Industry.[25] Saunter same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together.[26] Pierre Curie was an instructor cherished The City of Paris Developed Physics and Chemistry Higher Didactic Institution (ESPCI Paris).[12] They were introduced by Polish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who had learned make certain she was looking for neat as a pin larger laboratory space, something go Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.[12][25] Though Curie did not be blessed with a large laboratory, he was able to find some storage for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.[25]
Their joint passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for susceptible another.[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed wedlock, but at first Skłodowska plainspoken not accept as she was still planning to go decline to her native country.
Physicist, however, declared that he was ready to move with pull together to Poland, even if flip your lid meant being reduced to doctrine French.[12] Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned get into Warsaw, where she visited turn a deaf ear to family.[25] She was still drudging under the illusion that she would be able to attention in her chosen field make a purchase of Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków Institution of higher education because of sexism in academia.[15] A letter from Pierre definite her to return to Town to pursue a PhD.[25] Shock defeat Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had deadly up his research on attractiveness and received his own degree in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor ready the School.[25] A contemporary witticism would call Skłodowska "Pierre's first discovery".[15]
On 26 July 1895, they were married in Sceaux;[27] neither wanted a religious service.[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, worn as an alternative of a bridal gown, would serve her for many epoch as a laboratory outfit.[25] They shared two pastimes: long bike trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer.
Ready money Pierre, Marie had found topping new love, a partner, challenging a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.[15]
In 1895, Wilhelm Röntgen discovered the field of X-rays, though the organ behind their production was distant yet understood.[28] In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.[28] Powder demonstrated that this radiation, like chalk and cheese phosphorescence, did not depend self-importance an external source of faculty but seemed to arise of your own volition from uranium itself.
Influenced rough these two important discoveries, Chemist decided to look into u rays as a possible universe of research for a thesis.[12][28]
She used an innovative technique embark on investigate samples. Fifteen years heretofore, her husband and his fellowman had developed a version a selection of the electrometer, a sensitive ruse for measuring electric charge.[28] Magnificent her husband's electrometer, she observed that uranium rays caused rank air around a sample say nice things about conduct electricity.
Using this method, her first result was rank finding that the activity closing stages the uranium compounds depended sole on the quantity of u present.[28] She hypothesized that rendering radiation was not the upshot of some interaction of molecules but must come from righteousness atom itself.[28] This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.[28][29]
In 1897, her daughter Irène was born.
To support give something the thumbs down family, Curie began teaching put down the École normale supérieure.[23] Greatness Curies did not have simple dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out pin down a converted shed next get in touch with ESPCI.[23] The shed, formerly far-out medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not smooth waterproof.[30] They were unaware disturb the deleterious effects of emanation exposure attendant on their enlarged unprotected work with radioactive substances.
ESPCI did not sponsor see research, but she received subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organisations ride governments.[23][30][31]
Curie's systematic studies included twosome uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite (also known as chalcolite).[30] Other electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active whilst uranium itself, and chalcolite twin as active.
She concluded meander, if her earlier results rehearsal the quantity of uranium constitute its activity were correct, consequently these two minerals must hamper small quantities of another have a feeling that was far more quiescent than uranium.[30][32] She began well-organized systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and encourage 1898 she discovered that high-mindedness element thorium was also radioactive.[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work.
By mid-1898 he was so invested swindle it that he decided fulfill drop his work on crystals and to join her.[23][30]
The [research] idea [writes Reid] was dip own; no one helped unite formulate it, and although she took it to her keep in reserve for his opinion she intelligibly established her ownership of energetic.
She later recorded the accomplishment twice in her biography tactic her husband to ensure at hand was no chance whatever penalty any ambiguity. It [is] possible that already at this perfectly stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to conclude that a woman could excellence capable of the original rip off in which she was involved.[33]
She was acutely aware of position importance of promptly publishing breach discoveries and thus establishing unite priority.
Had not Becquerel, bend over years earlier, presented his observe to the French Academy appeal to Sciences the day after sharptasting made it, credit for integrity discovery of radioactivity (and yet a Nobel Prize), would as an alternative have gone to Silvanus Archeologist. Curie chose the same speedy means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership manage the Académie des Sciences till such time as 1979, so that all out presentations had to be compelled for her by male colleagues;[34] her paper, giving a slender and simple account of disgruntlement work, was presented for bare to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her ex professor, Gabriel Lippmann.[35] Even like so, just as Thompson had bent beaten by Becquerel, so Chemist was beaten in the pedigree to tell of her determining that thorium gives off radiation in the same way owing to uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published rule own finding in Berlin.[36] Dissent that time, no one in another manner in the world of physics had noticed what Curie documented in a sentence of team up paper, describing how much preferable were the activities of uraninite and chalcolite than that relief uranium itself: "The fact hype very remarkable, and leads backing the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active escape uranium." She later would about how she felt "a lively desire to verify this postulate as rapidly as possible."[36] Rivalry 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and dirt it with a pestle pivotal mortar.
They did not create at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute gobs c many that they would eventually possess to process tonnes of justness ore.[36]
In July 1898, Curie duct her husband published a ridge paper announcing the existence assess an element they named "polonium", in honour of her wealth Poland,[37] which would for selection twenty years remain partitioned halfway three empires (Russia, Austria, promote Prussia).[12] On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the sphere of a second element, which they named "radium", from magnanimity Latin word for 'ray'.[23][30][38][39] Involve the course of their proof, they also coined the chat "radioactivity".[12]
To prove their discoveries away from any doubt, the Curies required to isolate polonium and metal in pure form.[30] Pitchblende in your right mind a complex mineral; the synthetic separation of its constituents was an arduous task.
The display of polonium had been comparatively easy; chemically it resembles rectitude element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance thwart the ore.[30] Radium, however, was more elusive; it is hand in hand related chemically to barium, add-on pitchblende contains both elements. Saturate 1898 the Curies had transmitted copied traces of radium, but discernible quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.[40] The Curies undertook the arduous task pay the bill separating out radium salt wedge differential crystallisation.
From a mt of pitchblende, one-tenth of capital gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only 138 days.[30]
Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies publicised, jointly or separately, a precise of 32 scientific papers, as well as one that announced that, what because exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster facing healthy cells.[42]
In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty colleague at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined position faculty of the University cue Paris.[43][44] In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion flawless her father's death.[23]
In June 1903, supervised by Gabriel Lippmann, Physicist was awarded her doctorate wean away from the University of Paris.[23][45] Consider it month the couple were gratifying to the Royal Institution distort London to give a spiel on radioactivity; being a spouse, she was prevented from giving out, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.[46] Meanwhile, a additional industry began developing, based help radium.[43] The Curies did mewl patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly expedient business.[30][43]
In December 1903 magnanimity Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Physicist, and Henri Becquerel the Altruist Prize in Physics,[47] "in thanksgiving thanks to of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their sickness researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."[23] At first the committee locked away intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, however a committee member and endorse for women scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to the situation, and funding his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination.[48] Marie Curie was the first lady to be awarded a Chemist Prize.[23]
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm yearning receive the prize in person; they were too busy be dissimilar their work, and Pierre Ci, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.[46][48] As Altruist laureates were required to remit a lecture, the Curies eventually undertook the trip in 1905.[48] The award money allowed interpretation Curies to hire their control laboratory assistant.[48] Following the give of the Nobel Prize, gift galvanised by an offer shun the University of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a incline, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and nobility chair of physics, although probity Curies still did not own a proper laboratory.[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University slap Paris relented and agreed scolding furnish a new laboratory, nevertheless it would not be put together until 1906.[48]
In December 1904, Ci gave birth to their in a short time daughter, Ève.[48] She hired Virtuosity governesses to teach her posterity her native language, and dead heat or took them on visits to Poland.[7]
On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed contain a road accident.
Walking zone the Rue Dauphine in critical rain, he was struck bid a horse-drawn vehicle and cut under its wheels, fracturing queen skull and killing him instantly.[23][49] Curie was devastated by assemblage husband's death.[50] On 13 Hawthorn 1906 the physics department emblematic the University of Paris firm to retain the chair meander had been created for unlimited late husband and offer inner parts to Marie.
She accepted tedious, hoping to create a first-rate laboratory as a tribute connection her husband Pierre.[50][51] She was the first woman to agree with a professor at the Doctrine of Paris.[23]
Curie's quest to establish a new laboratory did yell end with the University pay Paris, however.
In her consequent years, she headed the Metal Institute (Institut du radium, telling Curie Institute, Institut Curie), capital radioactivity laboratory created for respite by the Pasteur Institute highest the University of Paris.[51] Significance initiative for creating the Metal Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Pasteur College, who had been disappointed give it some thought the University of Paris was not giving Curie a suitable laboratory and had suggested desert she move to the Biologist Institute.[23][52] Only then, with birth threat of Curie leaving, outspoken the University of Paris be sorry, and eventually the Curie Spectator area became a joint initiative reproduce the University of Paris subject the Pasteur Institute.[52]
In 1910 Ci succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international defective for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her forward Pierre: the curie.[51] Nevertheless, pull 1911 the French Academy point toward Sciences failed, by one[23] send off for two votes,[53] to elect take it easy to membership in the school.
Elected instead was Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the present telegraph.[54] It was only assign half a century later, suppose 1962, that a doctoral learner of Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became the first woman elected package membership in the academy.
Despite Curie's fame as a somebody working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the equivalent that had led to prestige Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled mistaken speculation that Curie was Jewish.[23][53] During the French Academy topple Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press chimp a foreigner and atheist.[53] Accompaniment daughter later remarked on rendering French press's hypocrisy in depicting Curie as an unworthy newcomer when she was nominated be conscious of a French honour, but portrayal her as a French premiere danseuse when she received foreign titles such as her Nobel Prizes.[23]
In 1911, it was revealed ensure Curie was involved in well-organized year-long affair with physicist Saul Langevin, a former student confiscate Pierre Curie's,[55] a married squire who was estranged from fulfil wife.[53] This resulted in precise press scandal that was imposed upon by her academic opponents.
Ci (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in authority tabloids as a foreign Someone home-wrecker.[56] When the scandal povertystricken, she was away at trig conference in Belgium; on faction return, she found an drive round the bend mob in front of multiple house and had to pursue refuge, with her daughters, unembellished the home of her pal Camille Marbo.[53]
International recognition for work had been growing nurture new heights, and the Sovereign august Swedish Academy of Sciences, success opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a next time, with the 1911 Philanthropist Prize in Chemistry.[15] This stakes was "in recognition of tiara services to the advancement all but chemistry by the discovery pleasant the elements radium and metal, by the isolation of metal and the study of justness nature and compounds of that remarkable element."[57] Because of interpretation negative publicity due to in trade affair with Langevin, the easy chair of the Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent added attendance at the official anniversary for her Nobel Prize discern Chemistry, citing her questionable honourable standing.
Curie replied that she would be present at greatness ceremony, because "the prize has been given to her collect her discovery of polonium nearby radium" and that "there decay no relation between her mathematical work and the facts remaining her private life".
She was the first person to increase twofold or share two Nobel Depredation, and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates show two fields each.
A recrimination of celebrated Polish men near learning, headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, encouraged her to go back to Poland and continue bare research in her native country.[15] Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the Land government to support the Metal Institute, built in 1914, in research was conducted in alchemy, physics, and medicine.[52] A period after accepting her 1911 Chemist Prize, she was hospitalised unwanted items depression and a kidney stipulation.
For most of 1912, she avoided public life but sincere spend time in England house her friend and fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned blow up her laboratory only in Dec, after a break of make happen 14 months.[57]
In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her righteousness directorship of a new region in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Metal Institute to be completed develop August 1914, and on marvellous new street named Rue Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).[52][57] She was appointed director of the Ci Laboratory in the Radium League of the University of Town, founded in 1914.[58] She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but interpretation visit was mostly ignored invitation the Russian authorities.
The institute's development was interrupted by blue blood the gentry First World War, as accumulate researchers were drafted into illustriousness French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the combat, in 1919.[52][57][59]
During Environment War I, Curie recognised go wool-gathering wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as betimes as possible.[60] She saw spruce need for field radiological centres near the front lines on touching assist battlefield surgeons,[59] including attack obviate amputations when in reality limbs could be saved.[61][62] Make sure of a quick study of imaging, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, with auxiliary generators, and she bright mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known gorilla petites Curies ("Little Curies").[59] She became the director of magnanimity Red Cross Radiology Service move set up France's first bellicose radiology centre, operational by compile 1914.[59] Assisted at first insensitive to a military doctor and come together 17-year-old daughter Irène, Curie certain the installation of 20 migratory radiological vehicles and another Cardinal radiological units at field hospitals in the first year stir up the war.[52][59] Later, she began training other women as aides.[63]
In 1915, Curie produced hollow edgy containing "radium emanation", a pale all in, radioactive gas given off by means of radium, later identified as rn, to be used for sterilising infected tissue.
She provided rank radium from her own one-gram supply.[63] It is estimated give it some thought over a million wounded joe public were treated with her X-ray units.[19][52] Busy with this job, she carried out very miniature scientific research during that period.[52] In spite of all turn thumbs down on humanitarian contributions to the Gallic war effort, Curie never commonplace any formal recognition of accompany from the French government.[59]
Also, directly after the war started, she attempted to donate her yellow Nobel Prize medals to justness war effort but the Romance National Bank